One of the most common causes of mistakes in English grammar is the misuse of punctuation marks. Whether they are wrongly used, missed out, or mixed up, we seem to struggle with commas, apostrophes and colons on a daily basis. But don’t feel too bad – so do the professionals, if these signs are anything to go by!

Apostrophes

Apostrophes are perhaps the worst culprit of all punctuation marks for mistaken usage, with an enormous number of people still failing to understand when and how they should be correctly used.

Apostrophe abbreviation

In English grammar, apostrophes have two major uses. The first is to indicate where a word has been abbreviated – in this case, the apostrophe takes the place of the missing letters, showing where the word has been shortened.

For example: Don’t, can’t, shouldn’t, hadn’t

Apostrophes for ownership

The other use of apostrophes is to indicate ownership. In the simplest form, the apostrophe is placed after the name of the owner and before the ‘s’.

For example: It is Martin’s cat, or, that is the boy’s jacket.

However if there is more than one owner, then the apostrophe is placed after the ‘s’ to indicate the plural.

For example: Those are the girls’ pencils, or, where are the dogs’ bowls?

Apostrophe exceptions

However there is one exception to these simple apostrophe rules, and this seems to cause a world of trouble in English grammar. The exception is in the case of the word ‘its’, where if the usual rules applied, an apostrophe would be required for both versions of the word, as one indicates an abbreviation and one indicates a belonging. In order to differentiate between the two however, an exception is made for ownership. When the ‘it’ is the owner, the correct spelling is ‘its’ without an apostrophe. So ‘it’s’ with an apostrophe indicates a meaning of ‘it is’.

So its means belonging to it.

For example: The dog ate its bone

Whilst it’s means it is.

For example: It’s very cold today

• Both for your own time management and (in professional proofreading) for the client to be able to budget appropriately, it is essential to make an accurate time estimate for proofreading the typescript.
• Try to keep a note of the length of time it takes you to proofread a page at different levels of editing intensity, so you can use this knowledge along with the page length of a given job to accurately predict the length of time an edit will take based on the level of proofreading you feel it will require.
• It is helpful to think of different editing criteria under broad headings, such as for example ‘structural adjustment’, ‘spelling and grammar correction’ and ‘referencing’. Some typescripts may require editing in only one area, others in multiple areas, and this is a clear and efficient way of explaining to the client how thorough a proofread will be necessary, as well as justifying your time spent and fee charged.
• Assess the standard of English of the typescript. In many cases, particularly if you are proofreading the writing of somebody for whom English is not the first language, you may notice basic linguistic problems running throughout the text, such as a lack of verbal agreements etc. It is important to note this, as it may be quicker later on in the proofreading process to carry out two edits, one correcting the linguistic errors of the piece, followed by a further more technical and structural edit.

The general standard of English is also likely to make a significant difference to the amount of time allotted for the proofreading job, as it is frequently recurring, small errors that account for the consumption of the greater part of a proofreader’s time.

• Perhaps the most important thing to remember when assessing a typescript is to make a note of any areas of the text where the writing or purpose is incomprehensible. There is nothing more frustrating for a proofreader than realising halfway through a job that they are unable to complete a certain section because it is impossible to determine the intended sense of the writing.

It is important to identify these areas in the initial analysis in order to clarify them with the client before beginning to proofread.

All proofreaders are aware of the importance of picking up spelling and grammar mistakes when proofreading or copyediting, of improving sentence structure and cohesion and generally overhauling the standard of a piece of text. Another important feature of editing services some proofreaders may not have come up against is the inclusion of tables, diagrams or design materials within a text, which can be daunting for the proofreader the first time they are encountered. Follow our simple guide for some top proofreading tips to get you started.

Proofreading tables

Tables may look complex and the first instinct when considering a proofreading job with tables may be to ignore them and simply focus on the text. However it is in fact much easier than you might think to proofread them quickly and effectively for a more complete and thorough edit.

• Check all headings and words within the table for spelling and grammar as many writers are sloppy here, feeling it is a less ‘formal’ area.

• Ensure that any underlining or capitalisation of titles of columns is consistent throughout the table.

• Check that the figures in a particular row or column add up to the correct total shown at the end of the row or bottom of the column; think of it as ‘mathematical proofreading’!

• Ensure that the table is neat and centred – many writers are not familiar with the table tool and may leave extra blank cells which need to be deleted using the table toolbar to make the table look neater and more professional.

• If the table is difficult to easily follow, consider adding alternate colours to adjacent columns to differentiate clearly between them.

Proofreading diagrams

Diagrams are often tailored specifically to the writer’s particular project so there are no hard and fast rules as you may encounter many variations. However the following top tips should help when proofreading texts including diagrams.

• Diagrams should always be spaced centrally on the page, not caught between two pages or awkwardly close to the top or bottom of the text. Ensure there is ample space around the diagram to allow it to be clearly seen without clutter.

• Regardless of the subject matter, diagrams should always be clearly labelled, whether with a code and a key or with neat, clear labels within the diagram itself. If the latter technique is applied, labels should be clearly attached to relevant parts of the diagram with straight, black lines and where necessary descriptions should be enclosed in a text box for neatness and clarity.

• Ensure that labels are uniform in the use of capitalisation and full stops as many writers will vary here.

Proofreading design materials

The trickiest category to define, design materials might consist of drawings, images, logos or plans within a proofreading job. This will often be the area least in need of alteration by the proofreader as it will be so specific to the particular text, but it is worth checking for clarity and definition, especially as many design materials do not transfer well to slides or come out clearly when printed.

Again, the proofreader or copy editor should ensure clarity, neatness and uniformity of font, capital letters and italicisation or underlining in any text or labelling included within the design material.

Attention to detail

Any editor or proofreader will tell you that attention to detail comes top of the list of important qualities to aspire to. Copyediting and proofreading services are all about picking up the tiny details a writer may have missed in their own text.

Some people think that proofreading and copyediting are all about changing glaring errors and picking up obvious mistakes, but in fact the true skill of the proofreader is their ability to notice the much smaller, subtler mistakes that most others would miss.

Proofreading services must pick up on errors like homophones, commonly misplaced words that sound the same as the word the writer meant to use but are actually spelt differently. Such errors are tricky to proofread and require great attention to detail, as they do not jump out immediately as misspelled words.

Patience

Another skill you might not automatically associate with an editor but which is in fact a key part of the master proofreader’s mentality is sheer patience.

Proofreading might seem like the quick check-through at the end of the more long and difficult process of writing, but in fact to thoroughly and comprehensively check through and edit an essay requires a great deal of patience and a slow, steady process of checking every single word and sentence one by one.

Editors providing top proofreading services will often check through a document two or three times before they are completely satisfied, requiring a great deal of patience indeed!

Consistency

Finally, for a top proofreading or essay editing job, consistency is essential. The quirks and variations of language are such that there will always be situations in which a writer has choices to make, whether in the use of a certain system of referencing, American or English spelling, the use of punctuation and so on.

An essential aspect of professional proofreading is ensuring that whatever choice is made for these variations is consistently applied throughout the text or essay, ensuring a high-class academic or professional finish.

As a proofreader your work requires solid concentration and attention to detail.  You have to notice every error in a text.  Here are some key errors to watch out for when you proofread texts

Use your proofreading and editing skills to spot and correct these mistakes

1. Words that are spelt correctly but are not in the right place, for example “We are not in a recession” when the author meant “We are now in a recession”.  These hard to spot mistakes can feel like a proofreading test even for experienced editors.
2. Repeated characters or transposed letters within a word, e.g. ‘form’ instead of ‘from’.
3. Inconsistent use of capitals or hyphenation.
4. Page numbering errors – Although page numbering can be added automatically, mistakes can happen, for instance when a section break is inserted in a Word document  the numbering system can be stopped.
5. Special characters. These are characters taken from other languages.  Sometimes the proofreader might have to edit a few words of a quote given in that language.  Other times these characters are used for systems of measurement in English.  For example, µ (mu) is used in different academic subjects to show measurement units.
6. Once you have located the errors, you need to correct them using the appropriate proofreading marks.
7. Check the design and layout of the page (this becomes particularly important when the work is to be published).
8. Check the line endings including the placement of hyphens when words need to be broken over the end of a line.
9. Assume that there could be mistakes anywhere on the page! Look for them in the heading, in recurring headers and footers, in footnotes, in the index, the contents list, bibliography and even the page numbers!
10. Work out which time of day you are at your best. Proofreading takes incredible focus, so you need plenty of energy to be able to concentrate on the work.
11. Check that dates or numbers in the text are correct. For example, if a text began “With the beginning of the Second World War in 1929…” you would want to correct the date.  If you know nothing about the topic being discussed you need to find a reliable source to help you check the dates.
12. Finally, remember that you shouldn’t just look at spelling mistakes. You need to look at punctuation and page design too.

Did this help?  If you are having any particular queries with your proofreading or essay editing, please post a comment below.

Confusables are a common problem that editors find in texts.  These are words that may sound (or almost sound) the same, but they are spelt differently and mean different things.  They could be words like: Site/cite/sight, their/there/they’re, to/too/two, passed/past, effect/affect.

There are also confusing words that have meanings that are very close, but they need to be used with care.  These words may have a similar root, but they do have different meanings.  They can need careful thought: Disinterested/uninterested, ensure/assure, comprise/compose, infer/imply.

These words cause problems for native speakers and foreign learners alike.  They tend to slip through into published text because the spell check on the computer won’t pick them up – if you wrote ‘weather’ when you meant ‘whether’, you’ve spelt a word correctly and the computer isn’t clever enough to pick out that you’ve used the wrong word.

Why bother?

Why should you care?  Won’t the reader of the text understand the meaning by looking at the context?  Will they even notice that there is a mistake when the words are so similar?  Plenty of organizations and companies make it clear that using correct English is essential to them.  On their website the BBC points out that if journalists use the wrong word (in writing or verbally) it reflects badly on the BBC and it jeopardises their good reputation.  The Plain English Campaign claims that around £500 million pounds of the British Government’s money has  been saved by the work of the Campaign over the last 2 decades.  Poor communication wastes time and therefore money!

There are no short cuts for dealing with confusables.  Taking some time to focus on them and learn their uses is the only way to avoid embarrassing errors.  However, there are some great websites to point you towards the most commonly mistaken words:

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_20.htm

http://www.elearnenglishlanguage.com/difficulties/difficulties.html

For further help, Fowler’s Modern English Usage gives a detailed description of the correct way to use many confusing English words as well as flagging up grammar and punctuation problems.  The book was originally published in 1926, but remains a popular reference book for editors to this day.

You can test your knowledge of confusables by trying a test here:-

http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_72.htm#confusex1

Are there other parts of the English language that are causing you confusion?  If you have particular editing problems please post a comment below.

Some professional writers may feel their language skills are exemplary and they don’t need someone else to check their work.  When you have all this material at your fingertips you may wonder why you would need a professional editing service to check over your work.

Why edit?

If you are preparing material for publication (whether it is for a leaflet or for a book) you need to be aware of the reasons editing takes place. An editor does three things:

• Makes sure that the author hasn’t made any errors.  These may be completely unintentional (such as typing mistakes made when the author is preparing the work under pressure).
• Makes sure that the reader can understand.  The author may be quite brilliant, but imagine if you have a professor writing a text book for GCSE students.  The author knows their subject well, but if they use text that is too complicated for the reader than the work becomes unusable.  The editor keeps the reader in mind.
• Makes sure that instructions for the designers and typesetters are clear.  Material needs to be prepared by designers and typesetters before final files are ready for the printer.  If the work is produced in a tiny font or the pages are badly laid out, this makes it harder for the reader to understand.  The comprehension process is influenced by the look of the page.

The different editors and their roles

In book and journal publishing there are basically two types of editor working directly on the text: the copy editor and the proofreader.

The copy editor sees the work first.  They check it for:-

• Consistency – They check that language is consistent throughout, e.g. if a word is hyphenated or capitalized then it is each time it appears, if the text uses ‘ise’ or ‘ize’ spelling this appears throughout,
• Mark up – They use editing code to explain to the printers which titles should appear as chapter headings or section headings, which font should be used, indentation  and so on.

When the text has been laid out as it will be printed a draft (or ‘proof’) is sent to the proofreader.  They will check:-

• Spelling.
• Grammar.
• They also check that all the copy editor’s instructions have been followed by the typesetter and designer.

Professional text editing makes a real difference to the accuracy and the reader’s enjoyment of the printed product.