Apostrophes DON’T form plurals!

Perhaps the most common of all mistakes made with plurals is the use of the apostrophe. Apostrophes have two clear uses in English grammar: to form an abbreviation, or to demonstrate ownership. Neither of these is concerned with plurals, so you should never use an apostrophe to suggest that there is more than one of something! The mistake clearly arises from the fact that the letter ‘s’ always follows the apostrophe when it is being used show that something belongs to somebody.

For example: That is Sarah’s sandwich.

It is therefore easy to see why many writers mistakenly connect this concept to the use of the letter ‘s’ to show that a word is plural, as demonstrated by this cake manufacturer. However, this is a misconception, so remember: think plural, think NO APOSTROPHE!!

Plurals are for Nouns, not Adjectives

When we are talking about more than one of something, that thing is usually a noun. Nouns are the names of things, for example table, tree, or person. Adjectives are the words we use to describe things, such as happy, brown or bouncy.

When we are describing more than one thing, it is important to remember that the letter ‘s’ we use to denote the plural is only attached to the noun, not to the adjective, as in this restaurant menu. Adjectives never take the letter ‘s’ to indicate that they are attached to a plural noun.

For example: green trees, NOT greens trees

Making Plurals from Words Ending in ‘y’

Words that end in ‘y’ cause particular problems when it comes to plurals, because some should end ‘ys’, whereas others change to ‘ies’. Many writers struggle with this concept, causing a plethora of spelling mistakes (as thoroughly demonstrated by this party organiser’s advert) but in fact there is a clear grammar rule you can use to get it right every time.

TOP GRAMMAR TIP: To make a plural from a word that ends in ‘y’, simply look at the letter immediately before the ‘y’. If it is a vowel, the word stays the same and you simply add the letter ‘s’ at the end.

For example: monkey becomes monkeys, boy becomes boys, play becomes plays.

On the other hand, if the letter before the ‘y’ is a consonant, you must remove the ‘y’ from the end of the word and then add the ending ‘ies’.

For example: fairy becomes fairies, try becomes tries, daisy becomes daisies.

My and Our

Another common mistake involving plurals is mixing up the possessive adjectives we use to say that something belongs to someone.

Remember, these possessive adjectives are singular: my, his, her, its

And these are plural: our, their, theirs

Finally, don’t make the same mistake as this over-zealous car owner, who failed to use a possessive adjective at all!

Just remember these simple rules to get your plural spellings right every time!

The second part of our Funny Grammar Guide blog on punctuation is largely concerned with apostrophes and the many different ways in which writers use them to make mistakes! The uses of the apostrophe in English grammar are really quite simple and clear-cut, so let us clear things up for you with these simple rules…

Apostrophes ARE for Abbreviation

The first use of the apostrophe in English grammar is to indicate abbreviation. This means that when we combine two words into one shorter word, or simply turn a longer word into a shorter version, we use an apostrophe to show where the missing letters have been removed from.

For example: in the word ‘doesn’t’, the apostrophe shows where the missing ‘o’ would go.

One common example of the use of the apostrophe for abbreviation is in the word ‘you’re’, meaning ‘you are’. Unfortunately this tattoo enthusiast has not only omitted the apostrophe, but also misspelled the word, with lasting consequences!

Apostrophes can also be used when writing abbreviated speech, to show where a particular dialect or accent causes the speaker to miss out parts of words, or sandwich two words together. Again, the apostrophe shows where the missing part of the word should go.

For example: “Come over ‘ere”, shouted the policeman.

When apostrophes are used in this way they help a reader to hear the phonetic sound the speaker makes but at the same time to understand where the words have been altered, which makes comprehension easier.

As you can see from this promotional McDonald’s cup, advertisers often use apostrophes in this way to suggest ‘cool’ abbreviated speech. Grammatically however, an apostrophe is required to show where each omission of letters has taken place, so the company is inadvertently implying that their drinks are either ‘good in cold’, ‘good an cold’, or ‘good on cold’!

Apostrophes ARE for Ownership

The other use of apostrophes in English grammar is to show ownership. We use an apostrophe after the name of the owner, followed by the letter ‘s’, to indicate that something belongs to them.

For example: that is Sophie’s hammer. I think she bought it from George’s shop.

So hapless Harry has managed to use an apostrophe correctly to indicate that he is the owner of his shop, but sadly became rather over-zealous in liberally sprinkling the same punctuation mark throughout the rest of his sign with less grammatical success!

Apostrophes ARE NOT for Plurals!!

Time and time again, writers make the mistake of adding an apostrophe before the s at the end of a plural word. This is NEVER GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT! Just don’t do it!
This is one of the most common punctuation errors in the English language, as these many examples show!

Silent Vowels

Silent vowels are, unsurprisingly, commonly missed out by writers because we often use the phonetic sounds of words to help us work out how they should be spelled. However, the crucial thing to remember about vowels is that they often influence the sounds of other letters even if they are not sounded out themselves. ‘Magic e’ is a great example of this concept – the addition of the letter ‘e’ at the end of a short word often changes the pronunciation of the whole word by elongating and softening the earlier vowel sound, even though the ‘e’ itself is not actually pronounced.

For example: bit becomes bite, fat becomes fate, not becomes note, jut becomes jute.

Elsewhere, silent vowels also influence the sounds of words, such as in the word ‘business’, where the ‘u’ in the first syllable of the word is changed to an ‘i’ sound by the insertion of the second, silent ‘i’. So it is important to remember to include it, unlike this unfortunate shop keeper.

Pluralising Words Ending in ‘y’

These tricky endings cause a huge number of spelling mistakes because there are two possible endings for plurals of words where the singular ends in ‘y’. These two possible endings are ‘ys’ and ‘ies’. Once again, vowels are very important in solving this spelling conundrum and luckily there is a simple rule you can remember to get it right every time.

GRAMMAR RULE: When pluralising a word that ends in ‘y’, check whether the letter directly before the ‘y’ is a vowel or a consonant. If it is a vowel, just add the letter ‘s’ to the end of the word. If the penultimate letter is a consonant, you must remove the ‘y’ and add the ending ‘ies’.

For example: Boy becomes boys, monkey becomes monkeys, but baby becomes babies and university becomes universities.

Whatever you do, don’t make the mistake of omitting the vowel at the end of the word altogether, like this embarrassing imitation mug. If you want to convince somebody you went to Harvard, it’s probably best to start by spelling it correctly!

Words ending in ‘o’

Words ending in ‘o’ have two different plural forms – some simply take the letter ‘s’, but others require an extra ‘e’ in addition. Unfortunately there is no hard and fast rule for which words take which ending, so it is important to learn the most common culprits to avoid spelling errors.

Some of the most important examples to remember are: tomatoes, heroes, echoes, studios, photos, videos.

Just remember – the extra ‘e’ is only added in the case of the plural, not, as many writers (like this café owner) mistakenly believe, in the singular form as well.

Word Order

One major writing mistake that can only be picked up by careful proofreading is incorrect word order. It is possible to write a sentence that is technically grammatically correct, but does not reflect the meaning you intended because of the word order. Changing the syntax (or word order) of a sentence can completely change its meaning, as this unfortunate market sign shows.

A helpful rule of thumb for syntax is to remember that most English sentences conform to the subject, verb, object sentence structure.

For example: The girl kicked the dog.

When we change this order to place the object at the beginning of the sentence, we say the syntax has been ‘inverted’.

For example: The dog was kicked by the girl.

The important thing to remember to avoid making mistakes this one is that if you have a phrase that modifies part of your sentence, you need to keep those two parts together.

For example: “Pay close attention throughout the night to hear the rare birds singing”, is different in meaning from: “Pay close attention to hear the rare birds singing throughout the night.”

Prefixes and Suffixes

Prefixes and suffixes are small modifiers added to the beginning or end of a word to change its meaning. You will usually recognise them and know immediately what impact they will have on the word, as they have a clear function and are used in many common words.

For example: anti- (against/opposite) semi- (half/partly) –phobic (afraid of)

We can use these to change the meaning of a word completely.

For example: freeze and anti-freeze, colon and semicolon, sphere and hemisphere etc.

However, it is important to be familiar with the function of prefixes and suffixes and only to use them where they are appropriate. The maker of this sign has assumed that the prefix ‘in’ means opposite, or negates the word, as in examples like ‘inadmissible’ or ‘inaccessible’. So he has tried to use it to imply poor visibility, or a lack of visibility. Yet the word ‘invisible’ already exists, and has a different meaning altogether, so his sign should have read “Be Aware of Poor Visibility”.

Using the Wrong Word

Another common problem that may lead to embarrassment is the accidental use of the wrong word in written text. Because these words, if spelled correctly, may not be picked up by an automatic spelling and grammar check, it is vital to proofread important pieces of writing before they are sent to the printers.

This often occurs with long, complex words that writers are not used to using, as this unfortunate door sign demonstrates! So make sure you get a fresh pair of eyes to look over your work, as it can be difficult to spot this kind of mistake in your own writing.

Writers seem to struggle so much to remember the correct uses of apostrophes in English grammar that there is an abundance of funny signs and grammar mistakes showing their many errors! Luckily, your trusty Funny Grammar Guide has rounded up the best and most ridiculous of these to illustrate the main apostrophe errors you should avoid in your own writing.

Rule 1: Apostrophes are not for plurals!

Because apostrophes often appear before the letter ‘s’ in English grammar, many hapless writers make the mistake of assuming that an apostrophe is required before the ‘s’ at the end of any plural word. This is not the case! Both this landscaping company and this tapas bar have made this mistake, inserting apostrophes before the ‘s’ at the end of their plurals, but they have committed an embarrassing grammatical faux pas!

Rule 2: Apostrophes are not for verbs!

For similar reasons, another common mistake is to insert an apostrophe before the ‘s’ at the end of a verb, particularly in the third person where verbs most regularly end with that letter. You can see an example of this mistake (amongst others!) in this English tutoring poster. Lucky they weren’t promising to teach students to use punctuation like James Bond…

“So…” I hear you cry, “What are apostrophes used for then?” Well…

Rule 3: Apostrophes are for ownership

Apostrophes are used in English grammar to indicate ownership. To differentiate between the ‘s’ we add to show a plural and the ‘s’ we add to suggest ownership, an apostrophe is added before the latter.

For example: This is Nick’s house, or, I love Rachel’s handbag

It is clear that the owner of this restaurant thought he was obeying this ownership rule when typing up his drinks menu, but unfortunately it does not apply to words like ‘ours’ and ‘yours’, as they do not mean ‘belonging to our’ or ‘belonging to your’.

Rule 4: Apostrophes are for abbreviation

The only other use of the apostrophe in English grammar is to indicate an abbreviation. An apostrophe is inserted to show where letters have been removed.

For example: I didn’t know you couldn’t make it, but don’t worry, I won’t get upset.

Our and Are

Two of the most commonly confused words in English grammar, these homophones cause particular problems because they are both such regularly used words.

Just remember, ‘our’ means belonging to us.

For example: This is our house.

‘Are’ is a part of the verb ‘to be’, used for the second person singular, the first person plural and the third person plural.

For example: you are, we are, they are.

There, their and they’re

These homophones are especially tricky to remember because they are a group of three, making it even harder to distinguish between their separate meanings.

Perhaps the easiest one to learn first is ‘they’re’, because the apostrophe reminds you that it is an abbreviation replacing the phrase ‘they are’.

For example: They’re going to the cinema.

‘Their’ is also quite simple, as it has only one meaning – ‘belonging to them’.

For example: That is their house.

‘There’ is slightly trickier, as it can be used in two different contexts. It can refer to a place:

For example: The house is over there.

Or it can be used in the phrases ‘there is’ and ‘there are’.

Break and Brake

The thing that makes these homophones so difficult to distinguish from one another is that both can be used as either a verb or a noun. However, the subject matter they deal with is quite different.

‘Break’ refers to something snapping, malfunctioning or coming apart.

For example: When the toys break we glue them back together, or, break a leg!

‘Brake’ refers to a mechanism for stopping or slowing down a moving vehicle.

For example: Step on the brake to stop the car, or, don’t forget to brake at the traffic lights.

TOP GRAMMAR TIP: Can you spot the other homophone spelling mistake in the very same picture?

Border and boarder

Border and boarder are tricky homophones because their spellings are so similar. Remember, ‘border’ means an edge or perimeter:

For example: The border of the garden was planted with trees, or, the border of France is adjacent to the border of Germany.

‘Boarder’, on the other hand, refers to somebody who is staying in a particular place. A good way to remember this is to think of the old fashioned hoteliers’ expression ‘room and board’.

For example: The school accepted students from abroad as boarders.

So this news station subtitle typist has rather embarrassingly suggested that the news story in question refers to somebody staying the night in Israel and Gaza!

Double letters are one of the most common causes of spelling mistakes in the English language. Whether they are accidentally inserted where they aren’t needed, or forgotten where they are, double letters are one of the prickliest problems faced by students and writers everywhere. Given the complexity of English grammar rules regarding double letters, with many exceptions and deviations and changes of sound and pronunciation, it can be particularly hard to pick up on these spelling mistakes when proofreading your own work. This is another great reason to use a proofreading service; a pair of fresh eyes to pick up on errors you may not have noticed yourself.

Double letters for emphasis

Although there are many complex individual rules regarding double letters in English spelling, one very handy rule of thumb is to remember is that a double letter almost always provides emphasis to that sound within the word, above other syllables. Checking where the strongest stress falls on a particular word can therefore be a great way to work out where the double letter should be placed.

This is perfectly illustrated by the first picture, a rather embarrassing mistake in an article about the film ‘Bobby’, about Bobby Kennedy. A quick phonetic check of the word ‘Bobby’ reveals that the stress is on the ‘bb’ syllable in the middle of the word, not on a long ‘oo’ sound. This quick spelling tip could have saved that magazine editor a great deal of embarrassment!

Double sets of double letters

Other good examples are this airport baggage claim sign and the notice on this hotel lobby door. Both writers have been caught out by a common problem – a word containing two sets of the same letter can prove extremely tricky to spell correctly – especially if there should be one single and one double set of letters.

In these cases it is again simplest and most effective just to sound out the word. In both cases, the emphasis is on the first part of the word: assistance and baggage. So these first syllables are where the double letters are required.

Another great spelling tip for double letters is to remember that as double consonants take on extra emphasis, they often shorten and sharpen the vowels immediately preceding them providing you with an extra clue. In the word ‘baggage’, for example, the first ‘a’ is particularly short and sharp as it comes directly before the emphasised ‘gg’ sound.

Missing out double letters

In a long word which contains several sets of double letters, sometimes repeated, it is a very common mistake to miss out entire sets of letters altogether, as this poor headline writer has discovered. This is because we are unused to writing words containing so many double letters and often assume that we must be mistaken, or that we must have already written in all the syllables. This is a great example of a time when a proofreading service can come in particularly handy! Another method to check for spelling mistakes yourself is simply to sound out tricky words syllable by syllable, making sure you have included each sound – as would have been particularly helpful in this spelling of ‘Mississippi’! Perhaps their literacy program wasn’t improving quite as much as they thought after all!

Too many double letters!

Finally, don’t make the same mistake as this café owner, who has chosen the rather desperate tactic of simply inserting as many sets of double letters as possible into a word in the hope that at least some of them will end up in the right place!

However, the type of homophones that cause the greatest number of English grammar mistakes are those which are spelt differently but sound the same (these are also known as heterographs, but homophone is the most common term).

One of the most common examples is the set of words ‘there, their and they’re’, which are commonly mistaken for one another. This unfortunate salesperson has made a mistake by suggesting that there is something strange (bizarre) about their sale, when the word they actually meant to use was ‘bazaar’, meaning a market or fete!

One of the best ways to identify homophones is to look at the vowels in the word. It is often the vowels and their position within the word that change the meaning, whilst the consonants often stay the same. So if you are writing a word down and you know that it has two different spellings, try to concentrate on the vowels to make sure you are using the correct version for the meaning of your sentence. This petrol company, for example, has mistaken an ‘a’ for an ‘e’, accidentally advertising that their fuel is ready to fight with a sword (duel) instead of indicating that it is made up of two components (dual) as they actually intended!

One great way to beat homophone mistakes is to be aware of the most common letter groups and combinations that result in grammar mistakes. The easiest way to do this is to think of different letter sets that make the same sound.

Some of the most common groups are:

‘ale’ and ‘ail’

For example: sail/sale, tail/tale, pail/pale‘eigh’ and ‘ai’ and ‘a’

For example: weight/wait, eight/ate

‘wh’ and ‘w’

For example: where/wear, which/witch, what/watt

‘ea’ and ‘ee’

For example: weak/week, leek/leak, peek/peak

This final example shows where our next real life grammar mistake has occurred, as the maker of this children’s toy has accidentally used the word ‘peak’ (meaning tip or apex) when they meant to use ‘peek’ (meaning to look surreptitiously)!

It is very important to be aware of common homophones when you are editing or proofreading a text, as many people make the mistake of thinking that the word is correct if it has not been picked up by a spell check programme. As homophones are actually spelt correctly but may be incorrect for the context of the sentence they are in, they are one of the most important mistakes for a proofreader to pick up manually.

Another very common mistake is in words which end with ‘e’, as these often have homophones where the vowels come in the middle of the word instead.

For example: steak/stake, file/phial, break/brake

This common grammar mistake is illustrated by our last example, where the writer of this sign has accidentally suggested that leaning back somehow stops the chair from moving (brakes) when he actually means that it damages (breaks) the chair!

There is no easy rule to avoid making homophone mistakes, but becoming familiar with these common letter groups can help you to identify places in your writing where you may be at higher risk of making mistakes, helping you to check through your work more thoroughly. Aside from that, just reading as much as you possibly can will also help, as you will become more and more familiar with the correct spelling and meaning of a word the more you read it.

Paragraphing

One of the easiest, cut and dried areas of structure to focus on to begin with is paragraphing. It is generally acknowledged across all academic levels and institutions that paragraphs are essential to a strong, clear structure. Each new thought or idea should occupy a new paragraph, so that the paragraphs clearly separate the different sections of the essay. In a short essay, paragraphs should be around 6-8 lines long, though this can vary, and longer essays or dissertations may demand longer, more complex paragraphs.

Subheadings

You will often find that a writer has used only a few separate, very long paragraphs in their work because they feel that there are only a few major topics to cover within their essay. In this case it is advisable to split each paragraph into smaller, more manageable chunks where natural divides seem to occur.

Remember that for those larger sections you can always retain the writer’s original three-topic format by inserting subheadings to separate the essay or dissertation into different areas.

Structural flow

The most important thing to remember with proofreading for structure is that the structure of the text should reflect and shape its meaning and direction. Examiners often talk about the ‘flow’ of a text, meaning the way the information or argument develops from its starting points to more diverse areas of consideration and through to the final conclusion. It is very important for a proofreader to ensure that the flow of the text is controlled and aided by the structure, so you must ensure that the first paragraph contains the laying out of the issue and the general question, followed by the biggest, most important issues first. The structure should then proceed to the more detailed areas of study, with related points closely positioned together so that the structure of the essay shows how one idea leads in to the next.

Any particularly strange or different points of view or alternative ways of considering the question should come towards the end of the essay, almost as an afterthought, whilst the final paragraph must sum up and conclude all previous points, tying the structure together into a cohesive whole.

Problems in proofreading most commonly occur when a situation arises where there are several legitimate options. If there is a clear mistake in spelling or grammar, or an obviously weak structural element to a text, the solution is simple and the proofreader has no tricky decision to make. However when a proofreader comes up against a matter that is more of a stylistic choice, it can be difficult to know how to make the right decision for the individual client. One such situation may arise when a proofreader is dealing with referencing.

What is a referencing system? What is a reference?

A referencing system is a method by which a writer includes within their text a reference consisting of information about sources they have referred to or quoted in their work. For example, if a writer quotes a recent article, the reference would include the name of the article, the author and information about its date and publication. This enables a reader to follow up the source and investigate further should they wish to, as well as providing an appropriate acknowledgement of the writer’s sources of research and information.

This reference may take the form of information (often abbreviated) included in brackets within the body of the text itself, or can sometimes appear in footnotes at the bottom of each page.

What are the different types of referencing system?

There are many different types of referencing system, however the most common are known as the Oxford and Harvard systems. For details on the differences between these systems and how to implement them, a quick internet search throws up hundreds of helpful guides.

How do I decide which referencing system to use?

It is absolutely essential to check with a client before you begin proofreading, to ask which referencing system they prefer or require. If the assignment is academic it is likely that the relevant institution or university will have very specific requirements and it is very important to follow these exactly. To avoid any confusion the best technique is to ask the client to provide any specific written instructions they have regarding referencing systems in order to ensure you are able to follow them to the letter.

What if the client has already started to reference?

In some cases a client may already have started referencing, but it is extremely common in a proofreading job for the proofreader to be asked to complete, correct or create uniformity between references.

In such cases it is most important to create absolute consistency within the referencing system. If the client has started off with one system then it is essential to maintain the same method throughout the text. Very often clients are unsure which system would be most appropriate for their piece of work. With these proofreading jobs it might be best to present them with a short extract showing examples of both types of referencing system so they are able to decide for themselves which method they favour.

If a client text is complex and contains a great number of references it is usually best to use footnotes so that the constant insertion of references doesn’t disturb the coherence and flow of the writing. On the other hand if a text contains only a few sporadic references it may be more advisable to include them in the body of the text for ease of reference.

As referencing is one of the areas in which proofreaders often find a great number of errors, it is also not uncommon to discover that a client has begun referencing their text incorrectly. In these cases it is advisable to start from scratch in order to create a clear and consistent system throughout.

Final Referencing Note

Finally be aware that it is not part of the proofreader’s job to search through texts and trawl through online journals to find the details of references. A client should always provide you with all the relevant information for each reference: author, title, date, publisher and place of publication. Sometimes it is also necessary to include page number and edition. To arrange and format these details into an appropriate referencing system is part of a proofreading job. To find them is not.